MTV Arabia Entry Strategy

MTV Arabia Entry Strategy 56 local channels airing Arabian music as well as international numbers by entering into agreements with production houses and other TV networks transformed the Arab culture. One can easily describe Middle East as a region in the process of fast development and cultural change with a rapidly changing political and economic system as stated by Moran, R. T., Harris, P. R. Moran, S. V. (2007). Arabs are Muslims with strong cultural ties with the religion and the holy book, Middle East is way backwards then the west, Arab women wear veils and cover themselves and men wear traditional clothes. Middle East also has politically diverse forms of government, where religion plays the main role in many different ways. Middle East has entirely different cultural ties then the west like shame and honour, family, socialization and trust. Without doubt, Islam is the dominant characteristic of Arab culture and society and is used to define parameters for much of what constitutes the beliefs and actions in Arab Society. Middle East, delineates a number of features of their culture and society with following social characteristics as noted by Leidner, D. L. Kayworth, T. R. (2008): Social Diversity Hierarchical Class Structure Patriarchal relations, particularly in the family Primary group relations Continuing dependency and underdevelopment Some of the salient features of Arab culture: low hypometropia, at least by the standards of developing nations, and very high monumentalism. Arab monumentalism is strongest in the world and comes together with the lowest suicide rates as noted by Minkow, M. (2011). Challenges posed to MTV MTVs worldwide image adds to everything they do special entering a country with strong cultural and conventional ties. As the information provided special projects manager at trends magazine Dubai explains that MTV is known in the market for inclining towards airing controversial program. Also it is an American brand hence carrying Americas liberal cultural values around the world therefore it will be a challenge for the brand to enter a religious and conservative market and air controversial material. Strong anti-American sentiments prevalent among a large section of the population, Issues such as US invasion of Iraq and its support to arch enemy Israel had left many Arabs angry consequently presenting another challenge for an American brand. MTV is a brand of MTV Networks (MTVN) and MTV Arabia launched in 2007 in Middle East was a very challenging step for MTVN, which posed bigger challenges like culturally sensitive environment. The biggest challenge faced was to keep the balance between international quality music and culturally sensitive environment of the region. Also Middle East is a very highly regulated and complex business arena comparing to the western world and companies had to follow more stringent rules and regulations to operate in Middle East. Targeting pan-Arab youth audiences were also another challenge posed to the American brand. Young people represent 65 percent of the population in the Middle East, which was also a challenge for MTVN. This large population of youth attracted other local music channels to start operating in the region, even before MTV Arabias entrance hence these channels had developed a better understanding of the local audiences taste and posed a bigger threat to MTVNs growth in the Middle East. MTV Arabia had to compete with 50 Music Channels operating in Middle East, hence the fierce competition in the market also posed a challenge. Another challenge posed to MTVN while entering Middle East market was its international reputation of airing sexually explicit and provocative programmes. MTVN also had western values attached with the brand and representing an image of open Western culture, opposite to the socially conservative culture of the Middle East was another challenge for MTV to enter Middle East. MTV had to find a balance between explicit music culture and the conservative social culture in the Middle East. Cultural differences among Middle East countries were another challenge posed to MTVN. The cultural ties between the countries in Middles East also differ posing another challenge to MTVN. The American managers interacting with managers from the Middle East might misinterpret the late arrival of a potential business partner as a negotiation play or insult, when it is rather a simple reflection of different views of time and its value in the Middle East as noted by Griffin, R. W. (2011). Also adopting local standards and trying to localize they brand may result in over localization and eventually dilute the brand. Too much localization or personalization can obviously breed logistical chaos and dilute the brand, so customization is usually carried out in clusters using local geographical or lifestyle data as noted by Watson, R. (2010). MTVs strategy in Middle East MTVI had an international strategy of creating joint ventures and contracts with channels already native to a new market. In Middle East MTVN had the same strategy and made a deal with Showtime Arabia as part of the deal Show Time Arabia aired MTV English and Nickelodeon with subtitles in Arabic, which helped introducing the American brand in the market with an already established radio network. After an introduction of the brand, MTVN later on made ties with local partner (Arab Media Group) AMG as part of their strategy to entry the Middle East market. Later on MTV Arabia was launched by the end of year 2006 joint ventured with Arabian Television Network (ATN). According to the information provided MTV Networks (MTVN) launched MTV Arabia on November 17, 2007, in partnership with Arabian Television Network (ATN). The core of the MTV strategy was to provide the region with a platform where Arabs can voice their concerns and it would also be an international music platform. Targeting huge youth populace in Middle East was also one of the main constituent of MTVs strategy to enter Middle East. MTV targeted the youth group of age 12 to 24 and presented itself as a fabric of youth culture. MTV Arabia involved itself in extensive research of the market and data collection which enabled the channel to respond audience diversity and different cultures. Understanding the next generation was also at the heart of MTVN, for which it had to engage itself in continuous market research, which was one of the characters of MTVs strategy in Middle East. MTV also pushed itself as cultural unifying force in a region known for its political tensions. The countries in the Middle East are known for having cross border tensions, MTV Arabia market itself in a way to become unifying force between the Middle Eastern countries with the help of an international platform for music. MTVN had to face competition from approximately fifty music channels operating in Middle East. They had to come up with a strategy to market them self in the market in a way which will help them attract audience. This strategy was being unique and different from the existing music channels choosing differentiation. In differentiation strategies, the emphasis is on creating value through sustainable uniqueness as noted by Harrison, J. S. John, G. H. S. (2010). Even after the launch of MTV Arabia they still carried on conquering the market. MTV-AMG launched Nickelodeon Arabia in 2008, as part of the strategy to build a portfolio of integrated kids businesses across the region. MTV Global Expansion Strategy One of the major steps by MTVN was its first overseas channel in Europe in 1987 and the international arm. International arm MTVI, by the mid-1990s launched a strategy of think globally, act locally and then expanding to MTV Australia, MTV Asia, MTV India, MTV China, MTV Germany and other parts of the world. MTV Arabia was a part of MTVNs global expansion strategy the brands known for its global expansion. The core of the global expansion policy was the same slogan think globally, act locally. This enabled the brand to conquer international markets like China, Australia and Europe, but Middle East posed a bigger challenge. In 2006 MTVI served to an audience of one billion and expanded its operations in 179 countries which included operations in Latin America, Europe and other parts of the world. At one time MTVI operated more than 130 channels, websites along with broadband services in more than 25 languages. By the end of 2007 MTVI had become the major network of Viacom Inc. with more than 140 channels around the world catering to a potential 1.5 billion viewers globally. The following table-1 represents their different websites operated by MTV in different parts of the world: Table MTV Worldwide Websites MTV Worldwide 1 MTV Adria 14 MTV France 27 MTV Malaysia 40 MTV Slovenia 2 MTV Africa 15 MTV Germany 28 MTV MENA 41 MTV Spain 3 MTV Asia 16 MTV Hits UK Ireland 29 MTV Netherlands 42 MTV Sweden 4 MTV Australia 17 MTV Hungry 30 MTV Networks Europe 43 MTV Switzerland 5 MTV Base UK Ireland 18 MTV Idol France 31 MTV New Zealand 44 MTV Taiwan 6 MTV Belgium 19 MTV India 32 MTV Norway 45 MTV Thailand 7 MTV Canada 20 MTV Israel 33 MTV Philippines 46 MTV Turkey 8 MTV Czech Republic 21 MTV Italy 34 MTV Poland 47 MTV UK Ireland 9 MTV China 22 MTV Japan 35 MTV Portugal 48 MTV Ukraine 10 MTV Croatia 23 MTV Korea 36 MTV Romania 49 MTV2 UK 11 MTV Denmark 24 MTV Latin America 37 MTV Russia 12 MTV Europe 25 MTV Latin America Revolution 38 MTV Serbia 13 MTV Finland 26 MTV LIVE 39 MTV Singapore Hence shows the strategic management of MTVN to think globally and act locally, catering their website, TV channel and the music according to the requirements and needs of every market. They take each port of the world locally developing different set of strategies for every country with the same core strategy of think globally and act locally. MTVs localization Strategy A localization strategy could be easily explained as the strategy which emphasizes on increasing profitability by catering the companys products or services so that they provide a product which is catered to the tastes and preferences of the local market as noted by Hill, C. Jones, G. R. (2010). MTV has a different localization strategy for every part of the world, the management at MTV understands the cultural differences across borders and they have a different localization strategy catered to according to the culture of the specific country. The company has different websites for each part of the world they are operating catered to the local culture of the community as shown by table-1. MTVs localization strategy also involved tying up with local channels and learning local culture and differences and then over time acquiring local channels. Like in early 2000s MTV entered Australia and joint ventured with Austereo (commercial radio network in the country and later on acquired Austereo. This strategy is also used in the case of Middle East where MTV used Showtime Arabia before entering the market and aired its reality shows and music with Arabic Subtitle. Later on MTVN joint ventured with AMG to launch MTV Arabia. MTV Arabias localization strategy involves following: English programs with subtitles in the local language Arabic version of International Music and Reality Shows Not to export American Culture Meeting political and government leaders MTVN launched programs with subtitles in Arabic with the help of Showtime Arabia and also used the strategy of meeting political figures and higher authorities as they did in China, Israel and Cuba. This strategy always proved successful for MTVN in all their recent entries to all the different parts of the world. Another major constituent of the localization strategy was not to export American culture helping the brand to fight its American image. To strategically develop products localized to Arab culture MTV Arabia had a decentralized structure with commercial and creative autonomy to the local staff, this enabled MTV Arabia to come up with programs catered to the local culture. MTV Arabias launch team had six members and they were Saudis, Palestinians, Emiratis, Iraqis, and Lebanese. This local mix helped MTV Arabia fight their American image and air globally successful music shows but with a local flavour to suit the Arab mindset. Strategy of providing Mixed Content to the Market MTVs mixed content strategy included airing sixty percent international music and forty percent Arabic music, along with the local version of the channels popular international non-music shows. Producing at least forty five percent of the content locally was at the heart of MTVs mixed content strategy. For the same reason MTV Arabia had a local launch team which produced the local content. MTVN had conducted extensive market research by going to colleges and universities and interviewing higher authorities and parents collecting data vital for the channel to reach its target of producing forty five percent of the content locally. MTV has used providing mixed content strategy in India and China and other parts of the world as well hence the company already had the expertise of producing mixed content. Decentralization provided exactly what was required for the local market and it had all the ingredients for MTV Arabia to be successful in Middle East. MTV and its Success in Middle East MTVs extensive experience in the global market enables them to cater their localization strategy and provide localized material which will certainly help MTV Arabia to be successful in the market as the Middle East market has youth as the major portion of the market. MTV Arabia targeting youth and actively engaging youth by providing them a platform to voice their concerns and to promote Arabian music is all what is required a market like Middle East. Another major reason for MTV Arabias success would be its image in the market, during data collection MTVN discovered that majority of the respondents thought that MTV was an Indian or European brand. Hence brand does not have to work as much as was the gimmick in the market that MTVN is an American brand and it will have to face tough cultural complexities in the market. The local launch team has provided answers to all such questions and now the brand is as localized as it could be. MTVN conducted surveys targeting the 18 to 24 age group and travelling around the Middle East to schools and university campuses for data collection, qualitative data also collected by interviewing figures of authority and elderly people, including speaking to government leaders and parents which will be a major reason for channels success in the Middle East Respecting Arab traditions and showing no disrespect to the local culture also providing a platform for Arab Music and culture is another factor in the success of MTV Arabia. Encouraging education and looking for solutions to problems like unemployment was another factor in the success of MTV Arabia and will help in future. Such initiatives help sending a positive signal about the brand in the market and the audiences starts accepting an relating themselves with the brand, which will be a major factor in success of MTV in the Middle East. All the international programmes which are aired by MTV Arabia are edited to cater cultural needs and requirements, music videos and reality shows are also edited to ensure they are aligned with the cultural ethos prevailing in the Middle East. All these factors helped MTV Arabia to be more localized and exceptive for the Muslim audience in Middle East. Too much localisation can dilute the brand MTV Arabia kept the balance in not to dilute the brand entirely by keeping sixty percent of the content international. This strategy also proved vital and it also incorporated respecting local cultures without diluting the brand. MTV Arabia focused on providing the youth with a platform where they can voice their concerns and also show their music talent was something which will help the brand to be successful in the Middle East Market.

Honey Bee Farming

Alabang we can see the skyscrapers, big malls and busy viable centers. In a backyard of a small house in a high village is a wood of trees and flowering plants, this is where the bees are camping and in this place Luke Macababbad lives. He is an urban farmer and a custodian of the colonies in a 50-square-meter backyard in Muntinlupa City subdivision. Bees sip the nectar of the shrubs and bushes of the wild flowering plants, vines and trees. January to May is the honey season, flowers bloom and honey flows. A 50 hives or colonies can make 30 to 50 kilograms of honey in 3 weeks. The 80% is being made into wine and the remaining is honey. According to Macababbad, the production is down because of climate change. The flowering season is not distinctive because the bees are confused. At this time, kakawati trees should be blooming but they are not. Honey is not produced after heavy rains. When you are into bee farming, the cost of a queen bee is $300 to $500. A single colony, with four frames to house 3,000 bees, costs about P6,200. Continuous labor and maintenance are the added operating costs. According to Virgilio Badajos, a staff beekeeper who was trained in Australia, bee mortality rate must be monitored. Migratory birds can eat up to 500 bees a day. He started the bee farming as a hobby at the University of the Philippines Los Banos. All we wanted was to have our own home-made honey for home use, he said. He had 4 colonies in his farm which expanded in Batangas, Lipa, Tanauan and Cavite. He harvested 100 kilograms of honey produced at Dielle's Apiary and Meadery Enterprises. With the increase in demand Macababbad seek the technology assistance from the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). And the Small Enterprise Technology Upgrading Program (SET UP) provided him P300,000 to purchase new stainless steel tank. This helped him increased from 1,000 bottles a year to 2,000 bottles per month. Other products were added: mango, bignay and duhat wines, the label designs and packaging were provided by DOST. Sales raised to 300 percent and on-line orders also increased. According to Dr. Teresita C. Fortuna, DOST’s Regional Director for Metro Manila, the bee colony is one of the more successful technology intervention of the DOST National Capital Region (NCR). In 2009, P8.9 million support was provided by DOST-NCR for technology acquisition to 11 microenterprises. This includes consultancies, trainings and workshops conducted in 596 firms. In Twinville Subdivision in Marikina, homeowners association uses hydroponics  or growing plants without soil. The DOST Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) provided the Hydroponic Technology. The Enriched Potting Preparation technology involves nutrient-rich compost soil extract and a specialized watering and aeration-efficient container made from used plastic bottles. Senior citizens of the Twinville Homeowner’s Association participated by planting the first crop of vegetables for home consumption. The harvested crop is sold in the city government and in nearby supermarkets. Marikina and Muntinlupa are the recipients of a bioreactor technology which converts the wastes from wet markets into organic fertilizer. While in Quezon City and Taguig, DOST NCR and PCARRD provided technical assistance and training to city agriculture technologies like edible landscaping, hydroponics and enriched potting preparation and composting.

The Heart Of American Secrets, Scandal, And Celebrities...

Deep in the heart of American secrets, scandal and celebrities lies the thing that can make blood boil. Murder. In 1962, Marilyn Monroe was found dead lying face down, with a bottle of pills next to her hand. But, like all good stories, things are never like they seem on the surface. From examining further evidence, one will understand Marilyn Monroe was murdered by Bobby Kennedy to keep the secret of Monroe’s scandal with JFK. This further shows the extreme measures Bobby Kennedy went to cover up this murder that will last throughout the next 50 years. Norma Jean Mortenson, or Marilyn Monroe was born June 1, 1926 in Los Angeles, Nevada. Who Norma Jean’s father is is still uncertain. Her mother had so many boyfriends at that time, that she didn’t know which one was the father. â€Å"As an adult, Mortenson would maintain that one of her earliest memories was of her mother, Gladys, trying to smother her in her crib with a pillow.† (Online, Marilyn Monroe Bio ) When Norma Jean was about seven, her mother who was diagnosed with schizophrenia was placed in a mental institution, while Norma Jean was put into foster care. Mortenson later said that she was sexually abused in the system and saw only one way out. She got married to her 24 year old boyfriend, James Dougherty, at age 16. Her husband was then sent away with the Marines and Mortenson became an actor. By the time he was home, she had changed her name to Marilyn Monroe, and had become a professional model. The world lovedShow MoreRelatedOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 PagesPedagogically a well-structured book with many clear learning objectives, cases, examples and good summaries for every chapter. Professor Martin Lindell, Hanken Business School, Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Finland This book makes it easier to understand the current stand of organization theory. I strongly recommend it to anyone seriously interested in the different intellectual traditions that contribute to our understanding of organizations. Professor Tomas Mà ¼llern, Jà ¶nkà ¶pingRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesProcesses 25 †¢ Outcomes 25 Summary and Implications for Managers 30 S A L Self-Assessment Library How Much Do I Know About Organizational Behavior? 4 Myth or Science? â€Å"Most Acts of Workplace Bullying Are Men Attacking Women† 12 An Ethical Choice Can You Learn from Failure? 24 glOBalization! Does National Culture Affect Organizational Practices? 30 Point/Counterpoint Lost in Translation? 31 Questions for Review 32 Experiential Exercise Workforce Diversity 32 Ethical Dilemma Jekyll and Hyde 33 Case

The Archetypal Hero In Lois Lowrys The Giver - 1012 Words

Imagine a world with no feelings, no color, no choice; a world where individuality and freedom are exchanged for security and sameness. This type of world is a reality for Jonas, the protagonist in Lois Lowry’s The Giver. After being assigned the next Receiver of Memories in the community, where he has the capacity to see beyond. As he begins his works, he gains wisdom and through that wisdom, learned that protecting the community from the memories, their lives lacked understanding and feelings. Jonas goes on an archetypal hero’s journey and chooses to risk everything to restore memories and wisdom to everyone in the community. Throughout this novel, Jonas is represented as a hero considering he demonstrates integrity despite living in a†¦show more content†¦So he decides that he is not letting it continue to just allow it to keep happening, besides it would be the easiest thing to do. Integrity is only one characteristic, there is much more to a hero. One of the genuine common traits of a true hero is their selfless nature. They give more importance to the well-being of others over their personal self. If it were not for this trait, heroes would not have the desire to help others in need. This quality is portrayed by Jonas to Gabe: â€Å"†¦ he forced the memory of warmth into the thin, shivering body in his arms† (Lowry 221). Jonas gives the memories of warmth to Gabe near the end of the book as they were climbing up the hill. He gave the memories to Gabe in order to keep him warm and not let him freeze in the cold weather; he helps Gabe so he doesn’t have to suffer the pain. Jonas proves his selflessness by being more concerned about the well-being of Gabe rather himself. Jonas’s selfless nature also was shown when he volunteers his time to working with the elderly that need help bathing themselves (Lowry 38). Jonas could have volunteered in other areas of the community that are not as uncomfortable as bathing elderly adults, yet he didn’t because it’s not about the appearance of others, it’s about their well-being and needs. If heroes didn’t acquire this trait they would not be able

Essay Cancer - 1081 Words

Cancer Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by an uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. If the spread of these abnormal cells is not controlled, cancer can cause death. Most cancers take the form of tumors, although not all tumors are cancers. A tumor is simply a mass of new tissue that serves no physiological purpose. It can be benign, like a wart, or malignant, like cancer. Benign tumors are made up of cells similar to the surrounding normal cells and are enclosed in a membrane that prevents them from penetrating neighboring tissues. They are dangerous only if their physical presence interferes with bodily functions. A malignant tumor, or cancer, is capable of invading surrounding structures, including blood†¦show more content†¦These symptoms are not always warning signs of cancer. They can also be caused by less serious conditions. It is important to see a doctor if any of these symptoms occur. Only a doctor can make a diagnosis. A person shouldnt wait to feel pain beca use early cancer usually does not cause pain. Observation is the most widely available examination for the detection of cancer. It is useful in identifying suspicious lesions in the skin, lip, mouth, larynx, external genitalia and cervix. The second most available detection procedure is palpation. It is particularly valuable in detecting lumps, nodules, or tumors in the breast, mouth, salivary glands, thyroid, subcutaneous tissues, anus, rectum, prostate, testes, ovaries and uterus and enlarged lymph nodes in the neck, axilla or groin. Internal cancers require an extension of observation through endoscopes, x-rays, magnetic resonance imaging, and ultrasound. Laboratory test, such as the Pap smear, and occult blood testing of the feces have also proven helpful for some of the cancers. However, concerns regarding effectiveness and yield play a particularly important role in decisions to screen for cancers not easily responsive to earlier detection through physical examination. The performance of these tests is usually measured in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values. The type, periodicity, andShow MoreRelatedCancer : Cancer And Cancer1673 Words   |  7 PagesCancer Cancer is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with approximately 14 million new cases in 2012.2 The amount of new cases is expected to rise by about 70% over the next 2 decades. Cancer which causes nearly 1 in 6 deaths, is the second leading cause of death globally, and was responsible for 8.8 million deaths in 2015. Approximately 70% of deaths from cancer occur in low- and middle-income countries. In 2012 about 14.1 million new cases of cancer occurred globallyRead MoreCancer And Cancer1309 Words   |  6 Pagesmanuscript was indicating how a particular gene is connected to how tumors/cancer are suppressed and how tumors/cancer also grow and multiply. When the codon is manipulated and mutated, the point in which the codon becomes altered, or the point in which the p53 gene is stimulated, forms reactions that may be harmful or can be non-threatening. The reaction that could be harmful could generate destruction to the gene and therefore form cancer. A non -threatening reaction may cause a reconstruction in the mutationRead MoreOvarian Cancer : Cancer And Cancer988 Words   |  4 Pages Ovarian cancer is a disease in which malignant or cancerous cells are found in the ovaries. The ovaries are two small organs that are located on each side of the uterus. The way cancer develops is when cells begin to grow out of control. 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ThereRead MoreCancer And Cancer705 Words   |  3 PagesI would refer a family friend or colleague to the American Cancer Society (ACS) website where a huge selection of support programs is offered throughout treatment and recovery (ACS, 2017c). There is an entire section dedicated to assisting with finding resources in whatever area someone is in or near and different programs from which to choose (ACS, 2017c). Visitors of the website can also filter their search based on an array of different choices ra nging from, but not limited to, advocacy, assistanceRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1341 Words   |  6 PagesWhat I chose to research on my cancer project was breast cancer, since breast cancer is one of the second deadliest cancers among women I felt like I should research into this topic more in-depth. Anyone, no matter male or female, we are born with some breast cells and tissue. Even though males do not develop milk-producing breasts, a man s breast cells and tissue can still develop cancer. Male breast cancer is very rare, yet more fatale because they are less likely to assume the lump is possiblyRead MoreOvarian Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1577 Words   |  7 PagesOvarian cancer is also one of the cancer that is affecting millions of women in today’s world. The previous researches were claiming that ovarian cancer comes from ovary cells. However, studies have found that ovarian cancer could be coming from fallopian tube. Dr. Burdette’s lab researched how fallopian tube can be contributing to ovarian cancer, and her research shows strong evidence of how does it occurs. It is very important to find a cure for ovarian cancer, otherwise deaths due to ovarian cancerRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer1115 Words   |  5 Pagesaround the world develops the most common disease called Breast Cancer. In the United States, about 200,000 women suffer from this disease and it causes more than 40,000 death each year. Breast cancer is a cancer cell (malignant tumor) that forms in the breast. The cancerous cells grow in the breast and then invade the healthy cells and the surrounding tissues of the breast and it can also spread into other parts of the body. Breast cancer is more common in women but men can also get it too. One of theRead MoreBreast Cancer : Cancer And Cancer896 Words   |  4 PagesBefore going in depth, let us first define what breast cancer is. According to the National Breast Cancer.Org â€Å"Cancer is a broad ter m for a class of diseases characterized by abnormal cells that grow and invade healthy cells in the body. Breast cancer starts in the cells of the breast as a group of cancer cells that can then invade surrounding tissues or spread (metastasize) to other areas of the body.† Cancer begins in the cells which are the basic building blocks that make up tissue. 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Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature a Bibliography Free Essays

string(273) " be labeled as feminists because of the overtones of westernization the term carries, but they also point out that most African women writers are committed, in the words of Omolara Ogundipe-Leslie, â€Å"as a writer, as a woman and as a third world person† \(339\)\." Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature: A Bibliography By Sharon Verba July 20, 1997 Those women who struggle without giving up hope, herald the impending change†¦ : change in attitude for both men and women as they evaluate and re-evaluate their social roles†¦. -Rosemary Moyana, â€Å"Men Women† Rereading, willful misreading, and de- and re-coding are tools used in African literature and womanist or feminist discourse to challenge â€Å"canonized ‘literature'† that tends to black out Black and blanch out Woman. -Kofi Owusu, â€Å"Canons Under Siege† T]he collective effort has to emerge from the ranks of those whose life is theorized. We will write a custom essay sample on Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature: a Bibliography or any similar topic only for you Order Now -Sisi Maqagi, â€Å"Who Theorizes† Feminist criticism of African literatures is a steadily growing field. The following bibliography includes articles and essays in English and French which examine African literatures (fiction, poetry, drama and oral literature) from a feminist or womanist perspective. It does not include, unfortunately, criticism in other languages — such as Wolof, Xhosa, Zulu, Portuguese, German, or Arabic — due to my own inability to read those languages. Also, authors whose works are originally written in languages other than French or English, such as Ngugi wa Thiongo’s plays and the novel, Devil on the Cross, and Nawal al Sa’dawi’s works, may be under-represented in this bibliography, as criticism often tends to be written in the language of the work being addressed. The first sections of this essay will present overviews on two key issues for those interested in both feminism and African literatures: the current ebate over the role of feminist criticisms in addressing African literatures, and an examination of the changes which have developed over the past decade in the ways feminist criticism approaches African literatures. This examination will trace these changes from 1985-1996 by considering articles which represent the ongoing evolution of feminist criticism in this field. Finally, this essay also includes a section which explains my methodology and sources in compiling the bibliography, and a section off ering hints for future searches, especially of online indexes. Feminist Criticism and African Literature Many issues of concern to feminist/womanist thought are raised and addressed in these articles. (1) Among the issues taken up in the state of feminist theory and criticism are the importance of feminism as a literary critical method; the representation and mis-representation of women in literary texts; the education of women; the access of women to the economic means of survival; motherhood; women in the domestic sphere; women as part of their communities; women’s role in politics and revolution; sexuality; and the direct treatment of women by men, and men by women. Underlying this array of specific interests are questions of gender in representation and of the reality or realities of life for women in Africa–past, present, and future. The arguments found in the articles in this bibliography present a multiplicity of views, a few of which may even be anti-feminist, but all of which make gender a basis of discussion, and all of which offer much for the consideration of feminist thought with respect to African literatures. The state of feminist literary criticism/thought in Africa â€Å"now† is the direct focus of several of the articles, although all of the articles could be said in some degree or another to be a part of this particular debate. I put â€Å"now† in quotations, because these articles cover a broad range of time–1980-1996– and those which focus on this particular topic present an evolving discourse. Two collections of essays in particular are noteworthy for their presentation of a range of ideas on feminism and literary criticism in Africa: Ngambika: Studies of Women in African Literature (1986) and South African Feminisms: Writing, Theory and Criticism 990-1994 (1995). Ngambika includes twenty articles which focus on the representation of women in African literature. Taken together the articles provide an invaluable overview of the types of feminist criticism being applied to African literatures in the mid 1980s, although most do not focus on the issue of fem inism as a critical method. One essay in this collection proves a notable exception. In the collection’s introductory essay Carole Boyce Davies(2) does write of the tension found in the works of many critics of African literatures, especially female critics. These critics, she says, work out of a growing awareness of the requirement to balance both â€Å"the need to liberate African peoples from neo-colonialism and other forms of race and class oppression, coupled with a respect for certain features of traditional African cultures,† and â€Å"the recognition that a feminist consciousness is necessary in examining the position of women in African societies† (1). Davies then outlines the issues of women writers in Africa (including the relatively small number of women writers) and the presentation of women in fiction written by African men, as well as the development of an African feminist criticism. In her treatment of the latter concern, she lists four major areas which African feminist critics tend to address: the development of the canon of African women writers, the examination of stereotyped images of women in African literature, the study of African women writers and the development of an African female aesthetic, and the examination of women and the oral tradition (13-14). While Davies acknowledges the objections African women writers and critics have to the term â€Å"feminist† and discusses womanist theory, she focuses on the idea of a developing African feminist theory which will not only perform the balancing act mentioned at the beginning, but continue to address the major issues she has outlined. Seven years later, in the 1993 publication A History of Twentieth-Century African Literatures, Davies and Elaine Savory Fido contributed a chapter entitled â€Å"African Women Writers: A Literary History. In it, they examine African women writers and their writings, focusing especially on the styles and genres used by these writers. Included is a brief segment on â€Å"Feminism and African Women Writers† as well as a separate section on â€Å"Criticism and African Women’s Writing. † In the section on feminism, they note the continued reluctance of many African women writers and critics to be labeled as feminists because of th e overtones of westernization the term carries, but they also point out that most African women writers are committed, in the words of Omolara Ogundipe-Leslie, â€Å"as a writer, as a woman and as a third world person† (339). You read "Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature: a Bibliography" in category "Papers" This triple commitment encompasses much of the politics of African feminism, as well as womanism, whether the labels are accepted or not. Fido and Davies conclude: â€Å"The role and history of feminist politics or activism on women’s rights in Africa is a discourse which African women are studying and clarifying for themselves† (339). One of the places in which this discourse can be seen is South African Feminisms: Writing, Theory and Criticism 1990-1994. South African Feminisms presents a collection of articles on feminist literature and criticism, including and expanding the debate on feminist criticism of African literatures which was part of the special issue Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa 2 (1990). M. J. Daymond’s introduction gives a good overview of the issues raised in the collection, including the debate over feminist criticism and the development of an African feminist theory. The section â€Å"Theory and Context† includes eight articles originally published from 1990-1993. Taken together, these articles constitute an excellent sampling of some of the issues and trends in African feminist criticism, including Sisi Maqagi’s â€Å"Who Theorizes? † in which she questions the ability of white critics, African or non-African, female or male, to develop a theory which will adequately address the issues of black African women, rather than appropriating those issues, and the voices which raise them. Jill Arnott, in an article entitled â€Å"French Feminism in a South Africa? Gayatri Spivak and the Problem of Representation in South African Feminism,† contends that difference, which can often lead to misrepresentation, can also at times lead to accurate and insightful work: â€Å"to power a genuinely dialectical interaction between two vigilantly foregrounded subject-positions,† but only with an awareness of the position of ifference and a consciousness of the act of representation (87). Desiree Lewis, in â€Å"The Politics of Feminism in South Africa,† counters that such a conscious and effective use of difference may well be impossible, as long as there is a political climate in which white female academics are attempting to hold on to their power within the academy, at the expense of black women. In the same article she also points out that unless black working class women can make their statements about the current â€Å"oppressive orthodoxies† and do so without creating, as she argues Western feminism has, another oppressive orthodoxy, there may be no way out of the current impasse. Changes in Feminist Criticism of African Literature Although some of the articles included in this bibliography, like those above, examine feminist literary criticism as a topic, most focus on literary concerns: texts, authors, or issues. In the seventeen years this bibliography spans there are shifts in the coverage these concerns are given. Critical analyses of individual authors naturally both broaden and deepen over the years, especially as an individual author’s body of work grows or is reclaimed from obscurity. In general, in the 1990s there are fewer works of criticism that examine several authors and more which focus on individuals and their work than there were in the 1980s. Also, the topics focused upon subtly shift over the years. Images of women in the works of†¦. † could be the subtitle for many of the articles written in the 1980s as feminist critics examined representations, or misrepresentations, of African women in literary texts. At the same time these critics raised the question of the role of African authors, male and female, in expanding and/or correcting such representations. These concerns are still addressed; indeed, the feminist criticism on these topics is, like the criticis m of specific authors, expanding and deepening. To highlight these changes, I shall examine here some of the collections and representative individual articles which have been produced over the years, beginning with the landmark collection Ngambika, which was published in 1986, followed by Women in African Literature Today in 1987, articles by Kofi Owusu and Elleke Boehmer in 1990, the 1990 issue of Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa, Essays on African Writing 2: Contemporary Literature published in 1995 and The Marabout and the Muse: New Approaches to Islam in African Literature in 1996. All of the articles in the first section of Ngambika overtly tackle the issue of the representations of women in the works of African authors. Carole Boyce Davies writes one of these articles: â€Å"Maidens, Mistresses, and Matrons: Feminine Images in Selected Soyinka Works. † In it, she argues that Soyinka often offers only stereotyped images of women which fall into one of three categories: the foolish virgin in rural settings, the femme fatale in urban settings, and the masculinized matron. Those characters which fall in the latter category, in Davies’ opinion, come closest to being non-stereotypes, but even they are drawn with â€Å"no depth† (81). The â€Å"foolish virgins† and the â€Å"femme fatales,† Davies argues, fill only the roles of stereotypes and symbols, possessions or trophies to be won away from Western influences by African traditions, or, more threateningly, these women are seen as dangers which can distract and destroy. Davies acknowledges that Soyinka sometimes shows women briefly in a positive light but notes that â€Å"throughout Soyinka’s works one finds the kernel of positive portrayal of the female image which is never fully realized† (85). Davies concludes with the argument â€Å"that the artist has the power to create new realities;†¦ women as neither victors nor victims but partners in struggle† (86). Davies’ article is representative of the criticism which examines the image of women in African literatures. That is, she carefully addresses the concerns of the author (i. e. he need for recognizable symbols) as she argues against the relegation of women solely to symbolic roles, asking for characterizations which do not â€Å"[reinforce] a negative perception of self to the female viewer/reader and, concomitantly, a condescension in the appraisal of women on the part of the male† (78). In the years following the publishing of Ngambika, several journals and monograph series devoted to African literatures published issues on women as authors of or characters in African literatures. One of the first was the Women in African Literature Today issue of African Literature Today (Vol. 5). Like Ngambika, this issue contains many excellent articles, almost all of which are written from a feminist perspective. I would like to discuss two of these articles as representative not merely of this particular collection, but of the feminist criticism on African literatures being published at this time. In â€Å"Feminist Issues in the Fiction of Kenya’s Women Writers† Jean F. O’Barr list three main categories of feminist concerns in the fiction of Kenyan woman writers: â€Å"how female children become women; †¦ what marriage means for women;†¦ here women’s work fits into their lives† (57). O’Barr notes that the women authors she analyzes â€Å"all write from the woman’s point of view, shar ply underscoring the idea that the female perspective †¦. may be different from the male perspective on the same topic† (58). O’Barr analyzes the works of Kenya’s female authors from a sociological approach, hoping to establish a stronger image of the social lives of Kenya’s women than is possible from the works of male authors. She concludes that Kenya’s women find themselves in a quadruple bind: â€Å"they see themselves performing traditional roles†¦ ithout traditional resources†¦ while at the same time they are undertaking modern activities†¦ while being denied access to modern support systems† (69). While O’Barr looks at the fiction of Kenyan women in order to locate the reality of women’s lives, Katherine Frank attempts in the controversial article â€Å"Women without Men: The Feminist Novel in Africa† to find a radically feminist future for African women. Frank endeavors to place African women w riters into the Western feminist mold by speaking of their work as a more radical extension of the Western feminist tradition. In speaking of â€Å"the contemporary British or American novel† she claims â€Å"our heroine slams the door on her domestic prison, journeys out into the great world, slays the dragon of her patriarchal society, and triumphantly discovers the grail of feminism by ‘finding herself,'† (14). She argues that in comparison African novels by women go far beyond their Western counterparts, refusing to â€Å"dabble in daydreaming about enlightened heroes or reformed, non-sexist societies,† (15). Frank finds that the â€Å"feminist† writers of Africa portray women not only as taking on active and shared roles with men, but as finding â€Å"a destiny of their own. †¦ destiny with a vengeance,† (15). Frank contends that Mariama Ba, Flora Nwapa, Buchi Emecheta and Ama Ata Aidoo’s novels are, in their feminisms, â€Å"more radical, even more militant, than [their] Western counterpart[s]† (15). But Frank’s interpretations place Af rican heroines on a path which is not different, but rather the same, if more intense, than the one taken by the British and American heroines she notes above. Frank stresses that in these novels women find only pain and degradation in their relationships with men, but on their own and in their relationships with other women they find â€Å"female solidarity, power, independence† (33). In her interpretation, Barr neglects to note examples in which the future is shared by men and women. For example, when she speaks of Mariama Ba’s So Long a Letter, she focuses on Ramatoulaye and Aissatou’s friendship and the â€Å"world they create apart from men,† (20). While this in itself glosses over the complex (and by no means completely negative) relationships these women have with the men in their lives, she also does not speak of Ramatoulaye’s daughter and son-in-law, and the hope Ramatoulaye finds in their relationship. In this article, Frank does not acknowledge a difference between demonstrating that a woman’s worth is not inextricable from her relationship with men, that a woman can take care of herself, as Ramatoulaye discovers, and an actual desire to live a life without men. However, controversial as some of her interpretations are, her essay effectively outlines the some of the subtle feminisms of African women novelists. Katherine Frank’s stance is one which falls into the category of â€Å"radical, feminist-separatist ideology† which Kofi Owusu defines and rejects in his article in Callaloo entitled â€Å"Canons Under Siege: Blackness, Femaleness, and Ama Ata Aidoo’s Our Sister Killjoy†(1990). While Frank sees Aidoo’s character Sissie as moving towards an autonomous, self-determining life without men (Frank 32), Owusu finds Aidoo to be â€Å"in tune with the ‘old’ (Achebe’s ‘vast corpus of African traditional stories’) and the ‘new’ (‘modern feminist theory’) (357). Owusu sees Aidoo, and other female writers, not as bridging a gap between Western and African thought but creating something new out of both and challenging the canons that would ignore either black or female concerns. Much of Owusu’s article analyzes â€Å"the discontinuities as well as continuities between womanist-feminist perspectives, on the one hand, and African literature, on the other† (342), allowing Owusu to regard Aidoo’s work as one which â€Å"give[s] a sense of structural and linguistic irony which is functional. †¦ signify[ing] a couple of things: the need for, and very process of, revamping† (361). Here, the canons need to be reformed in recognition of both race and gender, not one or the other, or one without the other. While Kofi Owusu focused on Aidoo’s linguistic and textual manipulations, the question of the image of women in African literature continues to be a highly examined topic. Elleke Boehmer explores the construction of women as mothers, whores, representations of national pride, or finally, as spiritual advisors and supporters, but not as individuals actively and crucially involved in political activity. In â€Å"Of Goddesses and Stories: Gender and a New Politics in Achebe’s Anthills of the Savannah,† Boehmer analyzes Chinua Achebe’s efforts to include women in his re-vision of the future and questions whether women remain a â€Å"vehicle† of transformation rather than actual women with an active role in the future of the country, that is, whether â€Å"woman is the ground of change or discursive displacement but not the subject of transformation† (102). She concludes that Achebe has still idealized women but that his creation of a female character with an important yet undefined role for the future has opened up space for women to have active and involved roles, side by side with men, in the building of the future. Like Davies’ article on Soyinka from Ngambika discussed earlier, Boehmer’s work recognizes Achebe’s literary prowess and commends his willingness to make women positive symbols, but in the end laments the lack of depth in his female characters. Although South African Feminisms was published in 1996, many of the articles in it come from the 1990 issue of Current Writing: Text and Reception in Southern Africa, which was dedicated to â€Å"Feminism and Writing. † This issue continued the trend of publishing articles debating not only the appropriateness of feminism in an African context but also the challenges of applying it to African literatures, as well as articles focusing on women writers or women’s images in literature. In â€Å"A Correspondence Without Theory: Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions,† Brenda Bosman addresses the psychological dislocation forced upon the women of the heroine’s family by â€Å"Englishness,† the term used by her mother to describe the process of assimilation which various members of the family undergo. However, one of the most interesting aspects of the article is Bosman’s explicit attempt to find a position from which to speak, as a white South African woman, to –not for, or of– Dangarembga. She writes her article in the form of a letter to Dangarembga, and acknowledges that she might not have succeeded in finding a legitimate position: â€Å"you may find†¦ despite all my conscious efforts, I have nonetheless submitted to the voice of my education†(311). Considering the problematics of education in Nervous Conditions, this could be seen as a double entendre, but her article shows a conscious attempt to find a place from which to speak comfortably, an increasingly difficult matter for some African feminists. The last two articles I will discuss reveal change in the field of feminist criticism of Africa on two levels: both are located in collections of essays on African literature which can be considered â€Å"general,† and both are examples of the further increase in variety in the forms of feminist criticism of African literature. Although very good collections of critical essays focusing exclusively on women and African literature are published, it is important to note that few, if any â€Å"general† collections are now being published without the inclusion of at least one, if not several essays which address feminist concerns. In Essays on African Writing 2: Contemporary Literature (1995), there are three articles which are written from a feminist perspective. One of these is Belinda Jack’s â€Å"Strategies of Transgression in the Writings of Assia Djebar. † In it she explores the means by which Djebar writes for Arabic women of Algeria in the language of the colonizer. Jack distinguishes Djebar’s writings by arguing that her â€Å"texts are not written in the French language but a French language† a language which no longer belongs to the colonizers because of the deliberate shifts Djebar makes (23). Jack also notes that Djebar also transgresses against Islam in her choices of subject matter, especially sexuality, again firm in the knowledge that while such speech may be a transgression, it is only a transgression because with speech (or writing) comes power. The last article I wish to discuss also focuses on Assia Djebar and her concerns with Islam. The Marabout and the Muse: New Approaches to Islam in African Literature (1996) contains four articles which approach literature from a distinctly feminist perspective: one on Somali women’s Sittaat (songs sung for and to notable women in Islamic history), one on the tradition of female Islamic writers in Nigeria, and two which examine Djebar’s Loin de Medine. In â€Å"Daughters of Hagar: Daughters of Muhammad† Sonia Lee argues that through her early fictional exploration of women in Islam, Djebar is attempting to make a space for Islamic women â€Å"to reclaim the true law of God† (60). Lee finds that Djebar’s historical training combined with her literary skills allow her to â€Å"[oscillate] between the actual and the probable, thus underlying the real subject matter of the novel, †¦. the problematic of Islamic collective memory with regard to women† (51). The above articles typify the growing expansion of feminist approaches to African literatures. While feminist criticisms continue to broaden the literary canon by bringing literature by African women to critical attention and continue to address the representation of African women in literatures, the methods used by such criticism in relation to African literatures continue to evolve. As feminist critics, both African and non-African, use sociological, linguistic, psychoanalytic, historical and other approaches to broaden the examination of African literatures, at least some Western feminist critics are also trying to incorporate a heightened awareness of their own positions with regards to the authors and literatures they discuss. Methodology This bibliography is, in every sense of the word, selective. African authors were included if an article (in English or French) could be located which discussed him or her from the angle of feminism, womanism, or the treatment of gender. Authors were not excluded or included on any other basis, including race and gender. Interviews were included for many of the female writers because such interviews often are a main source of feminist thought (their own) on their works. The sources I used to find these articles were the bibliographies of African literature located in the journal Callaloo (1987-89 and 1990-93), the MLA Bibliography, the African studies bibliographies for the years 1995-96, the CD-Rom resource Women’s Resources International, 1972-August 1996, as well as various library catalogs for monographs, whether collections or single-authored. In addition, I scanned the bibliographies of articles and books to find other relevant citations. There are several good bibliographies which focus, at least in part, on feminist criticism of African literatures from the 1970s through the mid 1980s. Brenda Berrian’s Bibliography of African Women Writers and Journalists, Carole Boyce Davies’ â€Å"A Bibliography of Criticism and Related Works† in Ngambika, and Barbara Fister’s bibliography on criticism in Third World Women’s Literature in combination cover this earlier period very thoroughly. I did not use these bibliographies to compile this one; to avoid excess duplication, I have focused on criticism published from 1980 on and simply cite these earlier bibliographies at the end of this one, although I am sure some duplication has occurred. This bibliography is organized by authors and also includes a section on general works, which is organized first by those which cover African literatures without focusing on a specific country, region or author, then by region, and then individual countries. Works of criticism are placed in this section if they refer to several authors/works from the continent, a particular region, or country. If an article focuses on four or fewer authors, it is included under the name of each author. The bibliography includes articles on eighty-seven individual authors, as well as general articles on Africa, East Africa, North Africa, West Africa, Algeria, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal, Somali, South Africa, and Zimbabwe; it cites more than four hundred articles and monographs. It is interesting to compare the authors found in this bibliography with the ninety-five authors found in the biography section of Hans Zell’s A New Reader’s Guide to African Fiction (1st ed. , 1971; 2nd rev. ed. ,1983). The authors in Zell’s work are often considered the early canon of African literatures. Only twenty-five authors appear in both the current bibliography and Hans Zell’s Guide. There may be several reasons for this difference. Many of the authors included in my bibliography were not then considered a part of the canon of African literature; and a few had not even published at the time Zell’s work appeared. Carole Boyce Davies also offers an insight which may explain the lack of overlap. She notes in her introduction to Ngambika that one of the priorities of African feminist literary criticism is â€Å"the development of a canon of African women writers and a parallel canon of critical works with the final aim of expanding the African literary canon† (14). The Guides were compiled in the early years of this expansion, and it is quite possible that today the lists would be more reflective of each other. At the same time, many African women writers actively rebuke attempts to place African men on the defensive, arguing that a critical approach to literature (as well as other social, political, and cultural expressions) must explore the strengths of both African women and African men. While feminist criticism does focus on male authors, it more often strives to bring to the forefront of literary discussions the works of female African authors and the strong, individualistic portrayals of women they offer. Future Search Hints The issues discussed above make feminist criticism of African fiction an exciting and dynamic field. They also make it a very complex field to research. There are several issues to keep in mind when beginning research in this area. One of the most difficult to overcome is the lack of coverage of this area in mainstream indexing sources, such as the MLA, especially when one looks for early works, which were often carried in journals not then indexed by the MLA. Other sources which do cover these journals, such as the excellent bibliographies periodically offered by Callaloo on studies of African literature, do not offer separate sections for feminist criticism, and it is necessary to assess which ones are relevant by the titles or, at times, the authors, of the articles. For my own part it should be noted that it is entirely possible that I have missed articles which should appear in this bibliography. Many of the best sources are only available in print, such as International African Bibliography, Current Bibliography of African Affairs, and Cahiers d’etudes africaines, which are more time-consuming to search, but well worth the effort. As the discussion above indicates, the term â€Å"feminism† can be extremely limiting when it is being used as a descriptor in either online or print indexes. For this reason, it is advisable to keep other terms in mind when searching for articles, whether in print or electronic resources, such as the keywords/descriptors â€Å"Gender† and â€Å"Womanism/Womanist†. It is important, as well, not to limit searches to the term â€Å"African. † While some articles are indexed with this descriptor, those articles which deal with a specific author may be listed under that author’s country instead, as of course are those which deal with the literatures of a specific region or country. Finally, especially when searching for articles in online indexes, it is useful to keep in mind specific topics, such as â€Å"sexuality,† â€Å"motherhood,† and â€Å"politics† combined with â€Å"women† or â€Å"female. â€Å" How to cite Feminist and Womanist Criticism of African Literature: a Bibliography, Papers

Explain why the Philippines and California are affected by disasters in different ways free essay sample

They are both considered hazard hotspots and frequently experience natural disasters. A natural disaster is the realisation of a hazard. California is an MEDC, the 6th largest economy in the world with a GDP of US$65000 per capita. However, despite the high risk of hazards it is a very desirable place to live because of its relaxed lifestyle and natural beauty. The population is growing mainly due to immigration which means that cities such Los Angeles are becoming more vulnerable. The Philippines is a Newly Industrialised Country (NIC) and has low to middle income of US$5000 per capita. Their economy is mostly dependant on agriculture (because of the rich, fertile soils on the volcanic hills), manufacturing and tourism, which are all at risk from the natural disasters. Although it is only a small group of islands, the population is huge at 91 million (over twice the size of Californias). Both California and the Philippines lie on plate boundaries and therefore both suffer from tectonic hazards. As with all plate boundaries, friction often builds up between the plates also causing regular earthquakes which can sometimes result in tsunamis as well. In the Philippines earthquakes have multiple impacts. This is partly to do with the physical geography of the land. Being a group of islands means that the epicentres of the earthquakes are often in the sea, which increases the likelihood of tsunamis. It is also very mountainous inland which means many areas are vulnerable to landslides. One earthquake in 2006 triggered landslides, a flood and a local tsunami 3 feet high. Another relatively minor earthquake was one of the causes of a catastrophic mudslide, killing1150 people. The Philippines does not have the economic resources to deal with the aftermaths of hazards very effectively therefore they have a low capacity to cope. Also the tsunamis and mudslides destroy farmlands and crops which means that people lose their source of income and possibly their homes. It can be difficult to rebuild their lives after this. California also suffers enormously from as it lies on a conservative boundary between the Pacific and North American plate. The San Andreas Fault runs all the way down the coastline of California where many cities namely San Francisco lie right on top. Two high magnitude earthquakes struck California over 5 years. The second one, (Northridge earthquake) January 1994 in Los Angeles was of magnitude 6.7 on the Richter scale. There were also many aftershocks ranging from magnitude 4 to 5 which caused further damage. Because of the dense population in Los Angeles, human impacts were big considering the efficiency of the emergency services and aid available: 57 died, more than 1500 were seriously injured, 9000 homes were without electricity and 48,500 people had no access to clean water. The economic impacts were also big because California is an MEDC meaning that many people have expensive possessions and there is a lot of expensive infrastructure in the city. California does have, though, a high capacity to deal with the high hazard risk. Primarily, they have the money to invest enormously in hospitals, emergency services and high-tech hazard-resistant buildings. Both California and the Philippines have coast on the Pacific Ocean. This means that much of their weather is dependent on the El Nino and La Nina oscillations. For California, the El Nino oscillation means wetter weather as it brings sub-tropical winds carrying heavy rain and consequently increased flooding, storms and landslides. La Nina oscillations means that California receives dry winds from the Arizona and Mexican deserts causing dry, hot weather often resulting in drought and increased wildfires. For the Philippines this is the other way round. The Philippines is also within the Typhoon belt and so receives up to 20 typhoons every year, particularly in the north. Most floods in California are due to the overflowing of rivers, for example, in the Los Angeles and San Gabriel rivers where 390,000 people are exposed. Flooding is dependent on the EL Nino Oscillation so regular severe flooding only really occurs for a few years at a time. Economic losses can be huge. Many areas are also at risk to landslides after flooding, as deforestation and wildfires have made the hillsides vulnerable to soil erosion. Severe flooding undermined Californias flood defences as the December-January floods of 1996/97, one of the wettest seasons on record, destroyed hundreds of levees causing severe flooding and landslides, killing 9 and displacing 230,000 people. $2 billion worth of flood management infrastructure was also damaged. However, a lot of money has gone into channelising rivers away from high-risk areas. Because of the efficient emergency services only 9 people died and temporary shelter could be arranged for the people who were displaced. In the Philippines however, floods have a more severe impact  because of their incapacity to deal with the impacts. In 2009 Typhoon Ketsana, with winds of 100mph, dumped 16.7 inches of rain in just 12 hrs. 246 died and 2 million were affected in Manila where 80% of the city was submerged. The National Disaster Co-ordinating Council was overwhelmed and unable to provide sufficient aid for everyone, which accounts for the high death toll. The death toll in the Philippines was much higher than in California because they did not have the capacity to cope. Also as it is an LEDC the government can only spend so much on risk management as there are so many other more pressing matters that must be prioritised. Overall, the Philippines and California are affected by disasters in different ways because of the economic resources of the country, the country’s development and because of its physical geography. California has more money to invest in things like emergency services, temporary shelters and hazard defences e.g. channelising the rivers. Also because it is very developed there are less chances of landslides. The Philippines are not yet highly developed and much of the high risk coast is still made up of remote villages/regions which are very vulnerable. Also, deforestation in the area has reduced their once densely forested land to just 18.3% of the land cover which has considerable effects on the severity of flooding and landslides as there is nothing to soak up the excess water or to absorb the landslides.